ELLIOT AUTOMATION:



Elliott Brothers (computer company)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Brothers_%28computer_company%29>
 

Elliott Brothers (London) Ltd was an early computer company of the 1950s60s in the United Kingdom, tracing its descent from a firm of instrument makers founded by William Elliott in London around 1804. The research laboratories were based at Borehamwood, originally set up in 1946. The first Elliott 152 computer appeared in 1950.

The well-known computer scientist, Sir Tony Hoare was an employee there from August 1960 for eight years and wrote an ALGOL 60 compiler for the Elliott 803. He also worked on an operating system Elliott 503 Mark II for the computer, although this was less successful and abandoned along with "over thirty man-years of programming effort." (c.f. The Emperor's Old Clothes)

John Lansdown pioneered the use of computers as an aid to planning; making perspective drawings on an Elliott 803 computer in 1963, modeling a building's lifts and services, plotting the annual fall of daylight across its site, as well as authoring his own computer aided design applications.

In 1966 the company established an integrated circuit design and manufacturing facility in Glenrothes, Scotland, followed by a MOS semiconductor research laboratory. The Glenrothes site was closed in 1969 following the take over of English Electric by GEC.

Elliott Automation (as it had become) merged with English Electric in 1967. The data processing computer part of the company was then taken over by International Computers and Tabulators (ICT) in 1968; this marriage was forced by the British Government, who believed that the U.K. required a strong national computer company. The combined company was called International Computers Ltd. (ICL). The real-time computer part of Elliott Automation remained, and was renamed Marconi Elliott Computer Systems Limited in 1969 and GEC Computers Limited in 1972, and remained in the original Borehamwood research laboratories until the late 1990s. The agreement which governed the split of computer technologies between the two companies disallowed ICT from developing real-time computer systems and disallowed Elliott Automation from developing data processing computer systems for a few years after the split. The remainder of Elliott Automation which produced aircraft instruments and control systems, was retained by English Electric.


 Computers

The following Elliott computer models were produced:


See also

External links



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<http://www.epicycle.org.uk/weblog/2006/jan-2006.htm>

Epicycle:

23rd January

Today one of my colleagues brought in a little pamphlet from the golden years of the British computer industry, "The A.B.C. Of Electronic Brains". Written for the BBC by Leon Bagrit of Elliott-Automation Ltd (eventually subsumed into GEC and then ICL, and long-forgotten outside of the British Computer Society's historical computing geeks), it has enough coverage of Elliott's own hardware and systems that it almost counts as advertising, but it's a fascinating document nevertheless. My colleague used a reference to a programming symposium to date the booklet to 1960, a pivotal year when transistors and ferrite core memory was replacing valves and delay lines, and magnetic media was just beginning to encroach on the dominance of paper tape and punched cards. Some of the illustrations are remarkable, such as a magnetic disk drive that looks more like the flywheel from a medium-sized truck that had collided with an oscilloscope and (I swear I'm not making this up) has what is very obviously a drain nozzle for emptying some kind of fluid out of the system - but some are delightfully prosaic, including an aerial photograph of a thoroughly non-descript brick industrial unit captioned "a building used to house a computer"...

Mr Bagrit turns out to have been something of a visionary, however, as although his prediction for the likely speed of future computers is somewhat conservative (he suggests clock speeds in the order of tens of megahertz, which probably seemed extravagant forty-odd years ago but pales into insignificance beside the cheapest low-end home PC) he's actually very daring when it comes to the potential size of the hardware. In a year that the science fiction author Isaac Asimov was writing about Multivac, a computer so large that is was built above Niagara Falls in order to use the river as a heatsink, Leon Bagrit wrote:

"One can quite soberly think of reduction in size to a point where a computer is made the size of a packet of twenty cigarettes. This may be attained by using printed circuits, printed by electron microscopes. Space travel will demand a reduction in size of computers to be mounted in spaceships".

It's interesting to note that hardware used by the world's space programs is notoriously conservative, and that instead it is the consumer electronics industry that has provided much of the drive towards miniaturisation, but apart from that I think his description is a good match for my Palm Tungsten T3 handheld.

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<http://www.classiccmp.org/pipermail/cctalk/2000-May/144603.html>

Lyons, Elliot, GEC, ICL, et al.

Will Jennings xds_sigma7 at hotmail.com
Thu May 4 19:39:19 CDT 2000

OK, for what its worth;
Lyons Brothers built the LEO because they wanted to computerize their
business, but they couldn't find anyone selling commercial machines, so they
went ahead and built their own. LEO, by the way, stands for Lyons Electronic
Office. The LEO was actually completed in early 1951, and other companies
heard about it and wanted it, so Lyons suddenly were in the computer
business. Most people don't know this, but the LEO is the first commercial
computer, it beat UNIVAC I to market by several months. Lyons Brothers,
Elliot Automation, English Electric, Marconi, ICT, and GEC are all related,
not to mention ICL. In 1969, Marconi, GEC, Elliot Automation, and English
Electric merged to form Marconi Elliot Computer Systems Ltd., which kept
selling the various dissimilar lines (there is some mention of AEI also
being a part of this). In 1970 or 71, the company became known as GEC
Computers Ltd., and some parts (I don't know what ones for sure), were
combined with ICT to form ICL. Basically, GEC Computers Ltd. was all of the
real-time systems, and ICL was all the data-processing systems. Somehow
Lyons Brothers fits into this picture also, I'm just not sure how. ICL was
first bought by an English electronics company called STC plc in 1984, then
Fujitsu bought 80% of ICL in 1990. Later Nortel bought STC and then in 1998
Fujitsu bought the other 20% of ICL from Nortel. As a side note, Fujitsu
also owns all of Amdahl, having excercised their option to buy the rest of
the company, since as you probably know, they put up the money to start
Amdahl and as such always owned a large chunk of it. I think GEC has
subsided back into Marconi, but I'm not sure, the whole ICL and GEC story is
a huge mess really. I hope you don't mind me taking the chance to give you
more info about them than you probably wanted. BTW, I know Elliot Brothers
(later Elliot Automation) dates back to 1795, and I'm fairly sure some of
the other companies involved are that age or older. If anyone has more info
I'd like to hear it, I have info on a bunch of models of
ICL/GEC/Elliot/English Electric machines too. I'd most like to know more
about ICT...



More information about the cctalk mailing list



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<http://www.xnumber.com/xnumber/microprocessor_history.htm>

Microprocessor History
Foundations in Glenrothes, Scotland

BY
Jim McGonigal

History

It is widely accepted that a small company in California called Intel developed the world's first microprocessor in 1971. In the late 60s and early 70s there was significant interest from calculator companies to further reduce the size and cost of desktop calculators, and to create a new market for personal calculators. Calculators had for some time used discrete transistors, and latterly discrete logic and custom MSI ICs, but a single chip calculator was only a vision. However, there was another microprocessor development happening in Glenrothes Scotland, also designed for the burgeoning calculator market which may have beat Intel to the market, both in timing and performance.


Toshiba Model from 1969


Disassembled Calculator


100 MSI ICs and 82 Transistors


Elliott MOS Research Laboratory 

The Formation of Pico Electronics Ltd

Elliott Automation was a significant British computer maker who in the 1960s realised the need to progress its own semiconductor technology. In 1966 the company established a facility in Glenrothes to manufacture Resistor-Transistor Logic and Diode-Transistor Logic , followed by the establishment of a MOS research laboratory. Geoff Brookes, Alan Strath and George Stevenson relocated from Borehamwood to Glenrothes to establish the MOS facility
(1). One of their first tasks was to produce an 8-bit computer using MOS technology, with George as the computer expert. In 1967 Elliott Automation merged with English Electric, and when GEC bought English Electric in 1969 they decided to close their production plant in Glenrothes.
Alan Strath had predicted the closure in 1967. "Since English Electric had recently completed a new microelectronics factory in Chelmsford, Essex, we expected that the Glenrothes facilities would be closed, so we successfully offered our services to General Instrument to establish a new facility". The Glenrothes facilities were complemented by the Hughes Aircraft factory that had been established in 1960 to produce germanium and silicon diodes and transistors, before moving into MOS design and production during 1967/1968.


In the summer of 1970 four General Instrument design staff  left to form Pico Electronics Ltd. They were George Stevenson, David Campbell, Harry McLennan and Les Leech. George was the Director of Engineering and the others were young, bright designers. All had previously been at Elliott Automation. Moses Shapiro, the CEO of GI advanced some startup capital on the basis that GI would get exclusive rights to the manufacture of  the single chip calculator ICs that the new company were planning to develop. They set up in a rented office in the Postgate in Glenrothes and very quickly put their design ideas into practice. The team already had a significant legacy in successful calculator chip design with one of the last jobs they had completed in GI being a five chip set for a Facit calculator. The team had designs for calculators going back to the Elliott days for Bell Punch.


Location of Pico's First Design Office

 

David Campbell remembered the first IC development at Pico Electronics.

"We were certainly not aware that any other company in the world was working to develop a single chip calculator at that time.  George Stevenson was the project leader and it was he who came up with the advanced and novel architecture used in that first calculator chip. I have always admired that achievement and give him full credit for it. The other guys, myself included had the job of converting his design ideas to a working chip using a 4 mask 10 micron metal gate PMOS technology. My own contribution was the design and layout of the program ROM and the dynamic RAM memories and the timer. This first machine was really advanced for its time, because it was a Reduced Instruction Set (RISC) processor. For example an 8 bit floating point addition of 2 numbers required just one line in the ROM. The whole program for the calculator was only 70 lines of ROM. The ROM was wide to allow the different parts of a calculation to be done in parallel. This meant that although the clock speed of the ROM was very low, the time to perform calculations was much quicker than other calculator chips which emerged in the years after our chip. The layout of the chip was done by hand because there were no software design tools for layout at that time. The layout was done by drawing the 4 layers of the PMOS transistors at 500 X scale onto a stable mylar film with a grid pattern. The transistors were represented by rectangular boxes for the drain, source,  gate and contact,  and the metal interconnection layer was drawn as rectangular lines.   There was also no computer simulation of the design prior to layout. To prove the design concept we built a fully functional but not very reliable breadboard using off the shelf  TTL logic chips soldered onto a number of stripboards which were just connected together by wires."
David Campbell continues. "The Pico calculator chip had stored program memory in the form of a ROM which worked in the same way as the ROM inside a microprocessor to perform a series of pre-programmed instructions. Remember in those days there was no OTP which could allow a microprocessor chip to be re-programmed. All the initial single chip microprocessor applications had hard wired mask ROM code. Applications which used external ROM or RAM for program memory and scratch pad memory were not single chip applications". Re-programming was still possible through a change in the ROM mask.

The design was completed very quickly and fabbed at GI's facility. David remembers the fab cycle time being a few weeks. GI's process in those days was state of the art and the design worked very early on. By the end of 1970 they had working silicon and a working calculator prototype to demonstrate to potential US and Japanese customers. Very quickly the Monroe Calculator Company (Litton Industries) of New Jersey became Pico and GI's  first major customer of  the IC in early 1971. Pico also designed the styling and all the electronics for Monroe's consumer models. Later in 1971 or 1972 Clive Sinclair also used Pico's chips  in his calculators Sinclair Calculators. (Alan Strath remembers Clive Sinclair visiting GI in Glenrothes not knowing anything about the technology, and two weeks later he was back, an expert !)
Intel announced their 4004 microprocessor in November 1971 Intel 4004 Website. This had been designed into a Busicom calculator earlier in 1971 but had been an exclusive design. If you compare Pico to Intel in those early days, the guys who formed Pico had significant design experience on calculator chipsets for a number of different calculator manufacturers. Their vision in setting up their independent company was to develop single chip processor ICs for calculators. Intel had a couple of designers in a new lab who happened to take on a design from Busicom. It was Busicom's idea to develop a calculator platform on which a wide range of calculators could be made. However in reality they couldn't develop follow-on machines with better capabilities, and couldn't compete with other solutions coming onto the market. It was this  failed strategy that encouraged Intel to seek alternative markets for their device. Calculators were becoming the largest single market for semiconductors and attracting increasing competition.


Busicom Calculator CCA With Intel Chipset


Royal Digital III With Pico/GI Chip from 1971


Texas Instruments had also been designing more integrated versions of their ICs for calculators, however they were behind Pico. David Campbell remembered visiting TI in Houston after the Pico chip had been in production at GI for some time.

"I remember visiting TI in Houston with George Stevenson in 1972 after our chip had been in volume production for some time when they told us about their one chip calculator. The chip size was huge and it was very slow compared to ours. They called a chip a "Bar" rather than a die which I thought was odd at that time. The visit was arranged by Monroe in response to TI's effort to try to replace our chips in the Monroe calculators."

If you examine Pico's patent 4,001,556 (GB version filed in March 1971, US version in July 1971) and compare with the often cited patents of Intel (3,821,715 and 3,753,011 Intel 4004 Patent Webpage) and TI (3,819,921 3,757,306), the Pico one presents a strong case. Both the Pico and second TI patents are the only ones to make claims on single chip devices but Pico's pre-dates TI's and is more integrated, having the processor on chip with ROM and RAM. Much later on, TI invested a huge amount of effort to get Michael Cochran and Gary Boones' patent 6650317 filed which must have been in response to the claims of Gilbert Hyatt on the invention of the microprocessor. The patent is incredibly well researched and cites a massive amount of prior claims and publications including George Stevenson's "Single Chip Calculator" and "documents produced as exhibits to the deposition of George Earley Stevenson".


             TI's single chip calculator                                                                gi logo

Michael Cochran and TI's Single Chip Calculator                              GI Manufactured and Marketed Pico's Chip Designs


George Stevenson and his team moved on to more complex chips including a single chip scientific calculator and went on to design all of GI's calculator chips. Pico eventually moved from the rented office in the Postgate to the vacated Elliot Automation MOS Laboratory building on the Eastfield Industrial Estate. Pico Electronics Ltd is still in existence as part of X10 Ltd. David Campbell and Pico continued to produce a number of innovations including the de-facto X10 standard for Home Automation. George Stevenson and Les Leech are still at X10 in Hong Kong. Further Pico and X10 history can be found at Pico and X10 History. Pico Electronics still own the Elliott building, however most business is now operated out of Hong Kong. Until his recent retirement, Harry McLennan still worked at Pico in Eastfield. Another early Pico employee, Dave Thompson who worked with David Campbell on the first X10 automation chips is still at Eastfield. David Campbell has been an independent IC design consultant for a number of years.
General Instrument in Glenrothes continued to produce a number of Pico's calculator IC designs and other consumer chips including the X10 ICs. GI eventually moved their US Hicksville NY facility to Arizona, from which they spun out the PIC microcontroller business into Arizona Microchip in 1989. The GI wafer fab in Glenrothes still operates as an independent wafer foundry.

(1) Alan Strath remembers, "I joined Elliott Automation in 1965. We started up in Scotland in 1966 and I think the EE takeover was in 1967.
We started with GI in the same year, with temporary accommodation  in two adjacent Glenrothes Development Corporation terraced houses in South Parks road. George and some of his recruits worked on designs on the ground floor while we pursued the conversion of a standard advance factory as a semi plant and ordered equipment. The Daily Express printed that the MD shared a bedroom in the house with his secretary ! I believe that GEC took over EE in 1968 or 1969, although I'm not sure. As you may know, Elliott Auto had taken a licence with Fairchild,  initially for DTL. During this period we met Robert Noyce, CEO of Fairchild and Gordon Moore, R& D manager. They left Fairchild saying that it had mushroomed out of control.
 
The production unit at Queensway closed in 1968 or 69 and partially moved to the R&D factory at Eastfield (now Pico)."

An interesting if trivial footnote is that the Elliott Automation production facility was established in part of the Cadco "pig factory" in Queensway Industrial Estate. Cadco was an investment by the actor George Sanders. Sanders was well known for playing the "cad" in films, and in a remarkably ill-conceived business venture in the early '60s, having always harboured dreams of becoming a tycoon, threw his name and most of his money into a sausage-making scheme that went belly-up, taking his company, Cadco Ltd., with it. He was ruined financially and barely escaped prosecution.

This article was originally written by Jim McGonigal and posted at his Web site located at http://www.spingal.plus.com/micro/.


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<http://www.klabs.org/DEI/Processor/shuttle/>


NASA Office of Logic Design

NASA Office of Logic Design

A scientific study of the problems of digital engineering for space flight systems,
with a view to their practical solution.


Space Shuttle Computers and Avionics

Shuttle PCB Courtesy of Kevin WilloughbyPhotos of the Shuttle Shuttle Flight Core Memory Page Courtesy of Paul Sollock, NASA Johnson Space Center

Title and Reference Abstract
HAL/S Documentation
  1. HAL/S Compiler System Specification
  2. HAL/S Language Specification
  3. HAL/S Programmer's Guide
  4. HAL/S-FC User's Manual
  5. Programming in HAL/S


Shuttle ALT Free Flight 1: GPC 2 Failure

Introduction
The separation event was marked by a sharp, but not loud, explosive sound and a brief, sharp, upward lurch. Neither the noise nor the jolt were particularly distracting and did not affect the accomplishment of the planned procedures. Immediately after the separation event, a master alarm occurred and a computer caution and warning light, a computer annunciation matrix column on general purpose computer 2, and a big "X" on cathode ray tube 2 were noticed .


Shuttle ALT Flight 1A: GPC 3 Failure

 

Summary
General purpose computer 3 failed during preflight checks for captive-active flight 1A on June 17, 1977, at 14:33:04. The central processing unit and input-output processor both stopped executing. No built-in test equipment error indications were generated.   Troubleshooting, including thermal cycling, has not caused the problem to recur. The problem cannot be further isolated by analysis, so the actual cause cannot be determined.


Space Shuttle Technical Conference

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
June 28-30, 1983
NASA Conference Publication 2342
General Chairman: Aaron Cohen

Abstract
   This publication is a compilation of the papers prepared for the Space Shuttle Technical Conference held at the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, June 28-30, 1983. The purpose of this conference was to provide an archival publication for the retrospective presentation and documentation of the key scientific and engineering achievements of the Space Shuttle Program following the attainment of full operational status by the National Space Transportation System.
   To provide technical disciplinary focus, the conference was organized around 10 technical topic areas: (i) Integrated Avionics, (2) Guidance, Navigation, and Control, (3) Aerodynamics, (4) Structures, (5) Life Support, Environmental Control, and Crew Station, (6) Ground Operations, (7) Propulsion and Power, (8) Communications and Tracking, (9) Mechanisms and Mechanical Systems, and (10) Thermal and Contamination Environments and Protection Systems.
   The papers in each technical topic which were presented over the 3-day conference period provide a historical overview of the key technical problems and challenges which were met and overcome during the development phase of the Space Shuttle Program. Taken as a whole, these papers provide a valuable archival reference to the magnitude and scope of this major national achievement.


Inadvertent Firing of L1L, L1U, R4U, F3L, and F3U (ORB)

 

Power-on Reset Problem
Primary reaction control system (RCS) thrusters L1L, L1U, R4U, F3L, and F3U inadvertently fired simultaneous 80-msec pulses at 035:11:41:06 G.m.t. (001:06:19:02 MET) when aft flight controller power was switched on. The firing was consistent with a +Y/+Z translation command response. The crew reported that the aft station translational hand controller (THC) had not been deflected.


Single Event Upsets for Space Shuttle Flights of New General Purpose Computer Memory Devices

P.M. O'Neill and G.D.Badhwar
NASA
IEEE Trans. on Nuclear Science, Vol. 41., No. 5
October 1994
pp. 1755 - 1764

 

Abstract
The replacement of magnetic core with a well characterized semiconductor memory in the Space Shuttle orbiter general purpose computers (GPC's) has provided a wealth of on-orbit radiation effects data since 1991. The fault tolerant GPC's detect, correct, and downlink memory upset status and orbiter position information every few seconds, giving us the ability to correlate 1400 upsets to date with altitude, geomagnetic latitude, and solar conditions. The predicted upset rate was computed by a modified path-length distribution method. The modification accounts for the Weibull distribution cross-section (rather than a single upset threshold) and the device sensitive volume thickness. Device thickness was estimated by the method normally used to account for edge effects at the upset cross-section discontinuity that occurs at ion changes. A galactic cosmic ray environment model accurately models the average particle flux for each mission. The predicted and observed upset rates were found to be in good agreement for sensitive volume thicknesses consistent with the device's fabrication technology.


The "Bug" Heard 'Round the World

Jack Garman
NASA, Johnson Space Center
ACM Software Engineering Notes
October, 1981, pp. 3-10.

Introduction (excerpts)
Discussion of the software problem which delayed the first Shuttle orbital flight.

On April 10, 1981, about 20 minutes prior to the scheduled launching of the first flight of America's Space Transportation System, astronauts and technicians attempted to initialize the software system which "backs-up" the quad-redundant primary software system ......and could not.  In fact, there was no possible way, it turns out, that the BFS (Backup Flight Control System) in the fifth onboard computer could have been initialized properly with the PASS (Primary Avionics Software System) already executing in the other four computers.


Computer Upsets on Shuttle Missions STS-37, 39, 43, and 44

From http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/GOES/sts.pdf


Distributed Processing on the Space Shuttle:
A Case Study

P. 5. Schoonmaker
McDonnell Douglas Technical Services Co., Inc.
Houston, Texas
AIAA Paper 81-2140

Abstract
This paper describes a study of centralized vs. distributed processing approaches to the design and integration of a new Space Shuttle Orbiter subsystem -- the Power Extension Package (PEP), a 25-kw solar array. The objective of this study was to determine the "best" a l location of PEP monitoring and control functions between the existing Orbiter Systems Management (SM) computer and an autonomous PEP processor. Four candidate functional configurations were defined, and a subjective, life-cycle assessment of the re1ative merits o f these candidates was performed by the study team. We concluded that the optimum configuration will (a) include substantial processing "intelligence" in the PEP processor, and (b) make use of SM computer "standard services".


A GPS Receiver Upgrade For The Space Shuttle – Rationale And Considerations

John L. Goodman
United Space Alliance LLC
40th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Fort Lauderdale, FL, July 11-14, 2004.
AIAA-2004-3911

Abstract
In the mid 1990s, a 5 channel Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver was integrated into the Space Shuttle avionics system due to the anticipated start of Tactical Air Control and Navigation (TACAN) phase-out in the year 2000. While the early 1990s technology level receiver adds redundancy and flexibility to the navigation process, and improves safety at emergency landing sites, new capabilities in modern GPS receivers would further enhance Shuttle navigation. All-in-view satellite tracking, new GPS signals and ground and space based augmentation systems would provide a more robust GPS navigation solution for the orbiters, particularly if future missions call for automated landings, or on-board precision orbit determination.


Lessons Learned From Flights of “Off the Shelf” Aviation Navigation Units on the Space Shuttle

John L. Goodman
NASA Johnson Space Center, United Space Alliance, LLC
 shuttle_gps_lessons_learned_may_02.pdf

Abstract
The Space Shuttle program began flying atmospheric flight navigation units in 1993, in support of Shuttle avionics upgrades. In the early 1990s, it was anticipated that proven in-production navigation units would greatly reduce integration, certification and maintenance costs.  However, technical issues arising from ground and flight tests resulted in a slip in the Shuttle GPS certification date.  A number of lessons were learned concerning the adaptation of atmospheric flight navigation units for use in low-Earth orbit. They are applicable to any use of a navigation unit in an application significantly different from the one for which it was originally designed. Flight experience has shown that atmospheric flight navigation units are not adequate to support anticipated space applications of GPS, such as autonomous operation, rendezvous, formation flying and replacement of ground tracking systems.


The Space Shuttle and GPS – A Safety-Critical Navigation Upgrade

John L. Goodman
NASA Johnson Space Center, United Space Alliance, LLC
shuttle_gps_n_cots.pdf

Abstract
In 1993, the Space Shuttle Program selected an off-the-shelf Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver to eventually replace the three Tactical Air Navigation units on each space shuttle orbiter. A proven, large production base GPS receiver was believed to be the key to reducing integration, certification, and maintenance costs. More GPS software changes, shuttle flight software changes, and flight and ground testing were required than anticipated. This resulted in a 3-year slip in the shuttle GPS certification date. A close relationship with the GPS vendor, open communication among team members, Independent Verification and Validation of source code, and GPS receiver design insight were keys to successful certification of GPS for operational use by the space shuttle.


A Software Perspective on GNSS Receiver Integration and Operation

John L. Goodman
NASA Johnson Space Center, United Space Alliance, LLC
sw_perspective_on_gnss_rcvr_int_op.pdf

Abstract
The GNSS industry is focusing on potential threats to satellite navigation integrity, such as intentional and unintentional interference, signal-in-space (satellite) and ground support infrastructure anomalies, shared spectrum issues, and multipath. The experience of the International Space Station (ISS) program, the Space Shuttle program, the Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) program and other users of GNSS indicate that navigation outages due to receiver software issues may pose as great a risk, if not more, to the user than threats currently under study.  The improvement in GNSS receiver tracking capability and navigation accuracy has been accompanied by an increase in software quantity and complexity. Current and future GNSS receivers will interface with multiple systems that will further increase software complexity. Rather than viewing GNSS receivers as “plug and play” devices, they should be regarded as complex computers that interface with other complex computers, sometimes in safety critical applications. The high cost of meeting strict software quality standards, and the proprietary nature of GNSS receiver software, makes it more difficult to ensure quality software for safety-critical applications. Lack of integrator and user insight into GNSS software complicates the integration and test process, leading to cost and schedule issues.


Space Shuttle Avionics Upgrade. Issues and Opportunities

Richard A. Swain and Wiffiam B. Wingert
IBM, Systems Integration Division, Houston

Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh Space Congress
Cocoa Beach, Florida, April 24-27, 1990
pp. 7-44 to 7-51

Abstract
     The Space Shuttle uses a complex set of software and hardware to guide, navigate and control it through all phases of flight. Five IBM AP-101B flight computers host a set of highly critical and complex programs. The current man-machine interface consists of a series of dedicated electromechanical instruments and switches combined with specialized displays with limited function. The exponential growth of microprocessor technology combined with the approaching obsolescence of the Space Shuttle cockpit avionics have driven NASA to explore a Product Improvement Plan for the Space Shuttle which includes the cockpit displays and controls.
     The IBM Systems Integration Division (SID) in Houston is currently studying alternatives for upgrading the Shuttle's cockpit. Some goals of the upgrade include, Offloading of the main computers by distributing some of the avionics display functions, reducing crew workload, reducing maintenance cost, and providing display reconfigurability and context sensitivity. These goals are being met by using a combination of off- the-shelf and newly-developed software and hardware. The software will be developed using Ada, and must meet the timing constraints imposed by existing Shuttle Systems. Advanced active matrix liquid crystal displays are being used to meet the tight space, weight and power consumption requirements. These displays are tied to commercially available 80386 microprocessors.
     On top of the challenges presented by the software and hardware development are programmatic constraints. These include: Transparency to existing Shuttle avionics and data processing systems, Integration into training facilities: avionics labs, simulators, aircraft, etc., Development of ground support systems: Software Development facilities, verification capabilities, systems integration environments, etc. and Installation into the operational Shuttle fleet without impacting current flight rates. Of course, this all has to be done within cost and timing constraints in a dynamic environment.
This upgrade holds promise for future improvements to the onboard avionics systems. An example is online storage and display of crew checklists and procedures. This and other potential growth paths must be accounted for in the design of this upgrade. The opportunities for laying the groundwork of a cohesive strategy for avionics in the nation's space fleet are many and the issues are complex but the technology has advanced far enough that significant benefits can be achieved by upgrading the current system making this a worthwhile if not mandatory task.


Preventing Data Pollution in the Space Shuttle Cockpit

Robert Hammett and Gary Schwartz, C.S. Draper Laboratory; William T. Smithgall , United Space Alliance
IEEE/AIAA DASC, 2003
data_pollution_2003.pdf

Introduction (excerpt)

Everyone is familiar with the problem of space junk, but the ongoing battle with pollution inside the avionics of the space shuttle is little known. During the original development of the space shuttle avionics system, designers of the fault tolerant flight control system were concerned about the potential for faulty data being generated by one computer being passed on to healthy computers, causing the recipients to fail. In the extreme, this spread of “polluted” data can cause all redundant computer systems to fail and can result in a serious safety hazard. Considerable effort was expended to ensure this could not happen and the robustness of  the shuttle avionics has been proven by many flights.


Shuttle Computer Complex

A.E. Cooper and W. T. Chow
Federal Systems Division
International Business Machines Corporation
Owego, N.Y.

Proceedings of the International Federation of Automatic Control, Triennial World Congress, 6th, Boston and Cambridge, Mass., August 24-30, 1975.

shuttle_complex

Abstract

The Shuttle Computer Complex provides the on-board data processing capability for Space Shuttle Orbiter avionics. It performs the data processing necessary for guidance, navigation, and control; payload handling and management; and performance monitoring functions. It is made up of five interconnected but independent general purpose computers to satisfy the overall avionics requirements in fault tolerance, partitioning, and functional isolation. Each general purpose computer consists of a central processing unit and an input/output processor; with the former performing all computations associated with the application programs, and the latter controlling the transfer of information between the computer and other subsystems of the Space Shuttle. The functions, characteristics, mechanization, and operation of the Shuttle Computer Complex are described in this paper.


Software Reliability Analysis

P. N. Misra
IBM Systems Journal
Volume 22, Number 3, Page 262 (1983)

misra.pdfXL
misra.pdf

Abstract
Methods proposed for software reliability prediction are reviewed. A case study is then presented of the analysis of failure data from a Space Shuttle software project to predict the number of failures likely during a mission, and the subsequent verification of these predictions.


Design-to-cost of the Spacelab avionics during Phase B

AIAA PAPER 77-1493
Kayton, M.
TRW Defense and Space Systems Group

In: Digital Avionics Systems Conference, 2nd, Los Angeles, Calif., November 2-4, 1977, Collection of Technical Papers. (A78-12226 02-04) New York, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1977, p. 89-95.

Abstract:
Six alternative avionic designs considered during the Phase B (conceptual design phase) of the European Spacelab development are described. Attention is directed to a comparison of their hardware, software and integration costs, and to the impact of each design on the Orbiter. Design 3 is chosen as the Spacelab baseline, where the subsystem and experiment functions are separated into different computers and data buses so that the experimenters' changes do not affect the unchanging system-support software. General-purpose crew stations are provided for subsystems and experiments, but major reliance is placed on dedicated panels. A data-bus system allows experimenters to connect devices on pallets to the racks in the Spacelab without rewiring. An evolution of Design 3 avionics is believed to support Spacelab experiments for many years to come.
Independent Orbiter Assessment (IOA): Analysis of the DPS subsystem

NASA-CR-185549

Lowery, H. J., Haufler, W. A., and Pietz, K. C.
McDonnell-Douglas Astronautics Co.

Published: Oct 24, 1986
Pages: 123
Contract Number: NAS9-17650

Abstract:
The results of the Independent Orbiter Assessment (IOA) of the Failure Modes and Effects Analysis/Critical Items List (FMEA/CIL) is presented. The IOA approach features a top-down analysis of the hardware to independently determine failure modes, criticality, and potential critical items. The independent analysis results corresponding to the Orbiter Data Processing System (DPS) hardware are documented. The DPS hardware is required for performing critical functions of data acquisition, data manipulation, data display, and data transfer throughout the Orbiter. Specifically, the DPS hardware consists of the following components: Multiplexer/Demultiplexer (MDM); General Purpose Computer (GPC); Multifunction CRT Display System (MCDS); Data Buses and Data Bus Couplers (DBC); Data Bus Isolation Amplifiers (DBIA); Mass Memory Unit (MMU); and Engine Interface Unit (EIU). The IOA analysis process utilized available DPS hardware drawings and schematics for defining hardware assemblies, components, and hardware items. Each level of hardware was evaluated and analyzed for possible failure modes and effects. Criticality was assigned based upon the severity of the effect for each failure mode. Due to the extensive redundancy built into the DPS the number of critical items are few. Those identified resulted from premature operation and erroneous output of the GPCs.

Independent Orbiter Assessment (IOA): Analysis of the backup flight system

Report Number: NASA-CR-185567

Prust, E. E., Mielke, R. W., and Hinsdale, L. W.
McDonnell-Douglas Astronautics Co.

Published: Dec 08, 1986
McDonnell-Douglas Astronautics Co. (Houston, TX, United States)

Contract Number: NAS9-17650

Abstract:
The results of the Independent Orbiter Assessment (IOA) of the Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) and Critical Items List (CIL) are presented. The IOA approach features a top-down analysis of the hardware to determine failure modes, criticality, and potential critical items. To preserve independence, this analysis was accomplished without reliance upon the results contained within the NASA FMEA/CIL documentation. This report documents the analysis results corresponding to the Orbiter Backup Flight System (BFS) hardware. The BFS hardware consists of one General Purpose Computer (GPC) loaded with backup flight software and the components used to engage/disengage that unique GPC. Specifically, the BFS hardware includes the following: DDU (Display Driver Unit), BFC (Backup Flight Controller), GPC (General Purpose Computer), switches (engage, disengage, GPC, CRT), and circuit protectors (fuses, circuit breakers). The IOA analysis process utilized available BFS hardware drawings and schematics for defining hardware assemblies, components, and hardware items. Each level of hardware was evaluated and analyzed for possible failure modes and effects. Criticality was assigned based upon the severity of the effect for each failure mode. Of the failure modes analyzed, 19 could potentially result in a loss of life and/or loss of vehicle.


I/O error processing in the Space Shuttle onboard system

AIAA PAPER 79-1952
Bassett, M. T. (IBM Corp.)

Published: Jan 01, 1979

Computers in Aerospace Conference, 2nd, Los Angeles, Calif., October 22-24, 1979, Technical Papers. (A79-54378 24-59) New York, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1979, p. 416-422.

Abstract:
The software design for dealing with I/O failures aboard the Space Shuttle Orbiter is examined in four pieces - error detection, error isolation, error elimination and error communication. The computer used is an IBM AP101 General Purpose Computer consisting of a Central Processing Unit (CPU) and I/O Processor (IOP). The design of the IOP permits software errors or failure/power-off of a device to disturb the acquisition of other data in a chain of commands. One recovery method uses dynamic code modification to eliminate or add segments to the chain. The design is made more interesting by the overall software architecture which allows configuration of up to five AP101s as parallel processors executing identical code sequences. Both the general software and hardware characteristics are expanded upon in order to set the stage for the details of the error handling design.

Redundancy Management Technique for Space Shuttle Computers

Sklaroff, J. R. (IBM Corp.)

IBM Journal of Research and Development Volume: 20 Page: Jan. 1976

sklaroff.pdfXL
sklaroff.pdf

Abstract:
This paper describes how a set of off-the-shelf general purpose digital computers is being managed in a redundant avionic configuration while performing flight-critical functions for the Space Shuttle. The description covers the architecture of the redundant computer set, associated redundancy design requirements, and the technique used to detect a failed computer and to identify this failure on-board to the crew. Significant redundancy management requirements consist of imposing a total failure coverage on all flight-critical functions, when more than two redundant computers are operating in flight, and a maximum failure coverage for limited storage and processing time, when only two are operating. The basic design technique consists of using dedicated redundancy management hardware and software to allow each computer to judge the 'health' of the others by comparing computer outputs and to 'vote' on the judgments. In formulating the design, hardware simplicity, operational flexibility, and minimum computer resource utilization were used as criteria.

Digital Processing Subsystem for the Space Shuttle

Rubenstein, S. Z. Shroyer, L. O. (Rockwell International Corp.)

NAECON '74; Proceedings of the National Aerospace and Electronics Conference, Dayton, Ohio, May 13-15, 1974. (A74-38517 19-09) New York, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 1974, p. 100-105.

Abstract:
The main characteristics of the Digital Processing Subsystem and other major subsystems and mission modes incorporated in the Space Shuttle are described. The DPS is the primary control source for the other subsystems, and consists of a main computer complex, serial data bus network, and a variety of control and data acquisition elements interfacing with the data bus terminals. Among the functional elements described are: the serial data bus network, general purpose computer, mass memory unit, multifunctional CRT display system, multiplexer-demultiplexer, data acquisition and control buffer, engine interface unit, mission events controller, display driver unit, and manipulator hand controller. Selective explicit and implicit design constraints are progressively introduced with an abridged design evolution to illustrate their importance.

Distributed processing on the Space Shuttle - A case study

AIAA PAPER 81-2140
Schoonmaker, P. B. (McDonnell Douglas Technical Services Co., Inc.)

Published: Jan 01, 1981

In: Computers in Aerospace Conference, 3rd, San Diego, CA, October 26-28, 1981, Collection of Technical Papers. (A82-10076 01-59) New York, AIAA, 1981, p. 165-172.

Abstract:
A Power Extension Package (PEP) has been designed to provide additional electrical power and energy during Shuttle sortie missions. The considered investigation was conducted to determine the most suitable allocation of PEP monitoring and control functions between the Orbiter's existing (centralized) Systems Management General Purpose Computer and an embedded PEP processor. PEP monitoring and control functions are examined, and a configuration definition is considered, taking into account the 'functional migration' process, function allocation criteria, and candidate functional configurations. A trade study is conducted, giving attention to an assessment of four candidate configurations. Assessment factors are related to cost, development risk, aspects of reliability and safety, PEP design complexity, PEP/STS integration complexity, flight operations, and launch/landing site operations. A thorough (subjective) assessment of the PEP system life cycle indicates substantial benefits from a distributed processing approach.


A Mass Memory Unit for the Space Shuttle Orbiter

Brobst, R. E. (Odetics, Inc.)
Published: Jan 01, 1976

In: International Telemetering Conference, Los Angeles, Calif., September 28-30, 1976, Proceedings. (A77-49851 24-32) Pittsburgh, Pa., Instrument Society of America, 1976, p. 202-214.

Abstract:
The paper describes a high-capacity, medium access time data system, the Mass Memory Unit (MMU), developed to interface with the General Purpose Computers in the Space Shuttle system. The MMU, which uses magnetic tape as the storage medium, will be used to provide display format storage and will function as an auxiliary memory, used to store and load/reload all phases of flight/ground software. The MMU is able to store 1.31 x 10 to the 8th bits and has a nominal access time of 600 millisec. The data transfer rate is 10 to the 6th bits/sec and recording is at a packing density of 5000 bits/in.

Computers for the Space Shuttle

Devore, C.
Signal, vol. 32, Nov.-Dec. 1977, p. 41, 42, 44, 46.

Abstract:
A general description of the onboard computer system for the Space Shuttle Transportation System is given. The organization of the Centralized avionics is described, and the data processing system hardware and bus terminal units are listed and their capabilities are stated. A block diagram of the data processing system configuration for the Orbiter 102 is shown. Five general-purpose computers interconnected with a variety of interface units through a serial digital bus network comprise this system.


The new AP101S General-Purpose Computer (GPC) for the Space Shuttle

Norman, P. Glenn (IBM Corp.)

IEEE, Proceedings Volume: 75 Page: 308-319
Mar 01, 1987

norman

Abstract:
This paper describes the development of the new AP101S General-Purpose Computer (GPC) for the Space Shuttle Orbiter. The AP101S evolved from a line of pipeline processors flexible enough to support the Space Shuttle requirements. It offers many features vital to the expected needs of the space program. This paper describes the design philosophy, methodology, primary features, and functionality of the AP101S. The testing and development, which led to the integration of the processor are also detailed. Finally, the application of using it on-board the Space Shuttle Orbiter is portrayed. Indeed, the AP101S is an integral part of an aggressive and expanding Space Shuttle program, and is one which will serve well into the future.


Space Shuttle Main Engine Controller

Report Number: NASA-TP-1932 M-360

Mattox, R. M. and White, J. B.
NASA MSFC

Nov 01, 1981

Abstract:
A technical description of the space shuttle main engine controller, which provides engine checkout prior to launch, engine control and monitoring during launch, and engine safety and monitoring in orbit, is presented. Each of the major controller subassemblies, the central processing unit, the computer interface electronics, the input electronics, the output electronics, and the power supplies are described and discussed in detail along with engine and orbiter interfaces and operational requirements. The controller represents a unique application of digital concepts, techniques, and technology in monitoring, managing, and controlling a high performance rocket engine propulsion system. The operational requirements placed on the controller, the extremely harsh operating environment to which it is exposed, and the reliability demanded, result in the most complex and rugged digital system ever designed, fabricated, and flown.


Advanced Engine Health Management Applications of the SSME Real-Time Vibration Monitoring System

Tony R. Fiorucci1, David R. Lakin II1, and Tracy D. Reynolds2
1 NASA MSFC
2 Optical Sciences Corporation

aiaa_2000_3622.pdf

Abstract
This paper describes the operational capabilities of the Real-Time Vibration Monitoring System (RTVMS) developed by the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) for Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) high-speed turbomachinery vibration diagnostics and failure mitigation. RTVMS is now operational at the Stennis Space Center (SSC) during SSME static test firings to provide real-time vibration analysis and health monitoring capabilities during engine operation. The RTVMS produces real-time vibration spectral data from such critical SSME components as the high pressure turbomachinery. From this data, discrete spectral signatures, which are prime indicators of turbomachinery health, can be assessed at high speeds and utilized to mitigate potential catastrophic engine failures. The ability to monitor these potential failure indicators will allow the SSME Program to develop a digital engine health monitoring system based on vibration analysis and, for the first time in the history of the Space Shuttle flight program, activate a vibration flight redline for the engine high pressure turbomachinery.


Computers in Spaceflight: The NASA Experience

James E. Tomayko, Wichita State University
NASA Contractor Report CR-182505
1988, 417 pages.

Chapter Four:  Computers in the Space Shuttle Avionics System

Notes: This book examines the computer systems used in actual spaceflight or in close support of it. Each chapter deals with either a specific program, such as Gemini or Apollo onboard computers, or a closely related set of systems, such as launch processing or mission control. Also published in Volume 18 of the "Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Engineering", as published by Marcel Dekker, New York. All references can be found in the Special Collections of Ablah Library, Wichita State University, Wichita, Kansas.

The links to the left points to the Chapter and sections on the Space Shuttle's Computers.


Achieving Reliability: The Evolution of Redundancy in American Manned Spacecraft Computers

J.E. Tomayko
Wichita State University

Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
Vol. 38, pp. 545-552, 1985

tomayko_85.doc

Abstract
Computers are a key component onboard manned spacecraft.  Gemini, Apollo, Skylab and the Space Shuttle all carried computer systems of increasing functionality and complexity.  All the computer hardware involved in those systems was rated at 95 per cent reliability or better; yet in no case was a computer system implemented without some alternative method of performing critical functions so that crew safety was assured.  How the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) gained the last five per cent of near total reliability is the story of the evolution of the concept of "backup" to the concept of "redundancy."  Success of this evolution is epitomized by the Shuttle, which did what no manned spacecraft had ever done: carry men on its first test flight.  The main factor in enabling NASA to take such a risk was the redundancy built into the Orbiter.


The Space Shuttle  Primary Computer System

Communications of the ACM
September 1984 Volume 27 Number 9
pp. 872-900

shuttle_primary_computer_system.pdf

Abstract
IBM's Federal Systems Division is responsible for supplying "error-free" software for NASA's Space Shuttle Program. Case Studies Editors David Gifford and Alfred Spector interview the people responsible for designing, building, and maintaining the Shuttle's Primary Avionics and Software System.

This copy is by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery.  The ACM permits copies of this article to be made without fee provided that they are not made or distributed for direct commercial advantage.


Design, Development, Integration: Space Shuttle Primary Flight Software System

William A. Madden and Kyle Y. Rone
Communications of the ACM
September 1984 Volume 27 Number 9
pp. 914-925

madden_rone.pdf

Abstract
The design, development, and integration of the Shuttle on-board Primary Avionics Software System (PASS) have posed unique requirements associated with few other aerospace or commercial software systems. These challenges stem from its size and complexity, its criticality to completion of the Space Shuttle mission, and from the fact that it is only one of many components of an overwhelmingly complex state-of-the-art Space Transportation System (STS).

This copy is by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery.  The ACM permits copies of this article to be made without fee provided that they are not made or distributed for direct commercial advantage.


Architecture of the Space Shuttle Primary Avionics Software System

Gene D. Carlow
Communications of the ACM
September 1984 Volume 27 Number 9
pp. 926-936

p926-carlow.pdf

Abstract
PASS, perhaps the most complex flight computer program ever developed, epitomizes the benefits to be gained by establishing a well-structured system architecture at the front end of the development process.

This copy is by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery.  The ACM permits copies of this article to be made without fee provided that they are not made or distributed for direct commercial advantage.

Space Shuttle On-Board Computers

Abstract
This small web page explains the Data Processing System aboard the NASA Space Shuttle (as of the 1980s,early 1990s) along with unique images taken of my shuttle-flown CPU and IOP units.

Birds of a Feather? How Politics and Culture Affected the Designs of the U.S. Space Shuttle and the Soviet Buran

by Stephen J. Garber
January 2002

birdsfinalcomplete4.pdf

Contents
  1. Introduction: The Political and Cultural Factors Argument; Background on the Two Shuttles; Literature Review
  2. How Technology and Politics Intertwined: The U.S. Shuttle's Development; Energiya-Buran Development
  3. The Impact of Culture: U.S. Technological Style and the Space Shuttle; Soviet Technological Style and the Energiya-Buran
  4. Summary and Conclusions

Appendices:

  1. Key U.S. Figures
  2. Key Soviet Figures
  3. U.S. Bibliography
  4. Soviet Bibliography
  5. Chronology
  6. Glossary
  7. Curriculum Vitae


Space Shuttle Avionics System

Report No.: NASA-SP-504
January 1, 1989

SP-504


Abstract
The Space Shuttle avionics system, which was conceived in the early
1970's and became operational in the 1980's represents a significant
advancement of avionics system technology in the areas of systems and
redundancy management, digital data base technology, flight software, flight
control integration, digital fly-by-wire technology, crew display interface,
and operational concepts. The origins and the evolution of the system are
traced; the requirements, the constraints, and other factors which led to
the final configuration are outlined; and the functional operation of the
system is described. An overall system block diagram is included.


Manned Spacecraft Automation and Robotics

Jon D. Erickson
Artificial Intelligence and Information Sciences Office
NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, TX 77058

Proceedings of the IEEE
Vol. 75, No. 3, March 1987, pp. 417-426 erickson_87

Abstract

The Space Station holds promise of being a showcase user and driver of advanced automation and robotics technology.  The author addresses the advances in automation and robotics from the Space Shuttle - with its high-reliability redundancy management and fault-tolerance design and its remote manipulator system - to the projected knowledge-based systems for monitoring, control; fault diagnosis, planning, and scheduling, and the telerobotic systems of the future Space Station.


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See Also:

Leon Bagrit <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Bagrit>
John Lansdown <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lansdown>
The world's first business computer  <Lionising Leo>
Computer Arts Society (Wikipedia) <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Arts_Society>
Computer Arts Society <http://www.computer-arts-society.org/>
The CACHe Project is an archive of pioneering British computer art
<http://www.bbk.ac.uk/hosted/cache/>
What Does it Mean to be a CG Pioneer?
<http://old.siggraph.org/publications/newsletter/v33n2/columns/machover.html>


Computer Art

One early group, the Computer Art Society, founded in England in 1968, ... In "Expressive Rendering," John Lansdown and Simon Schofield survey the technical ...
doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/MCG.1995.10018 - Similar pages

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Introduction The Incongruous: A History of Computer Art

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theses.library.uwa.edu.au/adt-WU2005.0114/public/02introduction.pdf


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Bulletin of the Computer Arts Society Special CACHe Issue ...

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JSTOR: A Selected Chronology of Computer Art: Exhibitions ...

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Eurographics 04 art show

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